Semi Classical

Thumri Thumri has often been scorned upon by the purists of Hindustani classical music due to its semi-classical mode and emphasis on light ragas, which may not necessarily adhere to the rigid of rules of a raga. But, it was always hugely popular among music aficionados. Satish Nandgaonkar retraces the history and development of this most melodious of Indian semi-classical forms of music. Kathak maestro Pandit Birju Maharaj's simple gait is grace personified. When he sat before a harmonium at 'Kaisa Jadu Dara', a thumri recital recently held at Tata Theatre, not many knew that what he would eventually perform would not only be an unusual but a rare glimpse of an art form which is near extinction. The style of thumri is the seated abhinaya style, which is both sung and interpreted with gestures while the artist remains seated. Though Panditji performs this style very rarely, he remains the last great exponent of this style credited to the Lucknow gharana. Prevalent in the early years of the Lucknow gharana, the seated abhinaya is the only form of music where Thumri and Kathak, two distinct North Indian forms of music, blend imperceptibly, complimenting and enriching each other. Thumri has often been scorned upon by the purists of Hindustani classical music due to its semi-classical mode and emphasis on light ragas, which may not necessarily adhere to the rigid of rules of a raga. But, it was always hugely popular among music aficionados.

This light, melodious form of semi-classical music has come a long way from the salons of courtesans in North India. Till the end of the 19th Century, Lucknow was the only recognised gharana of thumri. So the forms of thumri which developed later were classified according to their geographical locations. For instance, those which were created west of Lucknow in places like Farukkabad, Itawa, Bareilly, Mathura, Rampur and Delhi were referred to as the 'Pachai Ang of thumri', while those from the eastern areas like Benares and Calcutta came to be known as 'Purab Ang of thumri.' The third gharana of thumri was founded by Ali Baksh Khan of the Punjab/Patiala gharana and became popular in the 1940s when his sons Bade Ghulam Ali Khan (1902-1968) and his younger brother Munawar Ali Khan lent it a distinctive style. This came to be known as the 'Punjab ang of thumri'. Essentially classified into Bol Baant or Bandish thumris and Bol Banao thumris, the latter is the more modern of the two. Bol Baant indicates fragmentation, as in the Hindi word baantna, where the emphasis is more on dissection of the lyrics and embellishing them with classical ragas during presentation. Bol Banao indicates making or construction, from the Hindi word banana, where the stress is more on emoting the bhav (feeling) in the lyrics of the thumri. The 'Pachai Thumri', which was largely Bol Baant thumri, incorporated folk forms of Western Uttar Pradesh like Holi, Rasiya, Malhar, Sawan, and Led, while the Bol Banao thumri absorbed Eastern UP folk forms like Chaiti, Kajri, Purabi, Jhumar etc. The content of Bandish thumris focuses more on the Krishna Lilas -- the amorous and playful adventures of Lord Krishna with the gopis and his soulmate Radha. In contrast, Bol Banao thumris are not merely catchy for the ears but also carry profound emotional expressions. Though initially thumris were composed in various dialects of Northern India, the largest number of compositions are found in Braj Bhasha, the primary dialect of North India during the 15th to 19th century, now eclipsed by the more Sanskritised, Khari Boli dialect. It is pertinent to note that thumri's development is closely linked with the evolution of Khyal singing and Kathak dance. The bhavs or moods depicted in thumri lyrics can be presented both, through vocals as well as dance. The contents of thumris show that it is linked to the ashtanayikas or eight primary types of heroines defined by Bharata in his treatise, the Natyashastra. These eight types of heroines constituted the framework for subsequent dramas and poems including the contemporary thumri texts. Bharata and other theorists have classified heroines to describe and isolate individual characters and moods so, that artistes could reproduce them in their subtlety. Heroines were classified according to their amorous inclinations (anxious or detached), age (four stages of youth), social status (queen, aristocrat or harlot), their relationships with their lovers, their sexual propensity and so on. These classifications have created an astonishing 385 types of nayikas. According to thumri exponents, the study of nayika bhed or classification of heroines is necessary and helpful in rendering thumris effectively. Thumri was traditionally written to accompany abhinaya (representational dance) in Kathak, which generally portrays a nayika. Most pre-1900 authors have based their texts on stereotypical nayikas. The types include 1. Vasakasjya nayika (one dressed for union with her lover) 2. Virahatannahita nayika (one distressed by separation) 3. Svadhina nayika 4. Kalahantarita (one separated from her lover by a quarrel) 5. Kandita (one enraged by her lover, reproachful) 6. Vipralabdha (one deceived by her lover) 7. Prositashatrka (one with sojourning husband) 8. Abhisarika (one who moves to her lover, who travels for midnight meeting through dark jungle etc) 9. Pravatsyatpatika (one disturbed by the prospect of her lover's departure)

Origin Wajid Ali Shah who governed Lucknow from 1847 to 1856 and Sadiq Ali Khan, a renowned thumri singer from the Qawwal-bachhe gharana, are generally credited with popularising and refining thumri in the 19th century. Shah is credited with creating several thumris apart from laying the foundation of Urdu theatre in India. But, the earliest references to thumri are found in the historical texts of the Gupta period (4th to 6th century AD) and Kalidasa's play 'Malvikanimitra' where the main protagonist, Malvika, performs thumri. Other explicit references, prior to 1850, are found in a treatise written by Captain Augustus Willard titled 'Treatise of the Music of Hindostan' in 1834. Similarly, they are found in 'Radhagovind Sangitsar', a treatise commissioned by the Pratap Simha, the Maharaja of Jaipur in 1803. But the thumri of the 19th Century had very little stylistic resemblance to the Bol Banao thumri of today, which is sung in slow tempo, emphasising the emotive portrayal of the text through a leisurely exploration. In the 19th Century, thumris denoted a piece in a medium or fast tempo (teentaal or rupak or ek taal) stressing the bol baant, a set of techniques where the text is fragmented for an elaborate vistar (alaap like passages), taan (fast melodic runs), and layakari (rhythmic manipulation).

Thumri and Khyal While the Bol Baant or Bandish thumri resembled Chhota Khyal in text, taal and compositional structure, it also differed from it on several counts. Firstly, Bol Baant thumri was associated with Kathak dance. Secondly, it employed a specific set of light ragas. Thirdly, its style was technically less demanding than Chhota Khyal, which requires a command of virtuoso taans and a strict adherence to raga rules. The Bol Baant thumris were also essentially composed by a specific group of Lucknow based composers who used Hindu pen-names despite being Muslims. For instance, the most popular thumris of that time are attributed to Lallan Piya and Sanad Piya. The resemblances found between Chhota Khyal and thumri are primarily because both forms evolved in a similar way. Till the 18th century, Dhrupad was the favoured classical court genre. Khyal emerged as a more rhapsodic and light alternative form relying more on fast taans rather than the austere Bol Baant layakari or Dhrupad. Khyal was patronised by people like poet-musician Amir Khusro (1253-1325), Hussain Shah Sharqi, the Sultan of Jaunpur (1457-83). It was not until Mohammed Shah of Delhi came to rule in 1719 that Khyal entered the royal courts as a favoured classical genre.

It was in Delhi, which supported hundreds of tawaifs or courtesans who were accomplished musicians, that thumri and khyal developed rapidly. The courtesans cultivated the interpretative song and dance forms. As Delhi's fortunes began declining after Aurangzeb's death in 1707, the Mughal emperors succeeding him began taking interest in the lighter forms like khyal and thumri. They preferred it to the more sober Dhrupad.

Thumri and Kathak The way thumri's evolution is linked to that of khyal, it also evolved complementing Kathak. In the Mahabharata, the word Kathak appears denoting actors, singers. Kathaks were professional story tellers who narrated stories from the Hindu epics and mythology. During the medieval era and Mughal empire, Kathak flourished in temples and courts. Its speciality was the dramatic presentation of Vaishnavite myths and the stories were supported by mime and accompaniment. In the 18th century, Kathak became very popular in Lucknow, paralleling the rise of thumri. But, Kathak was essentially embued with Vaishnavism, specialising in the portrayal of tribulations and joys of Radha and Krishna -- Krishna's teasing, and holi playing, and Radha's passionate longing. As Delhi's fortunes declined, after the invasion of Persian ruler Nadir Shah in 1738, the courtesan district in Delhi became deserted. At the same time, Lucknow was emerging as the new political, economic and cultural centre of North India. Kathak's evolution began rapidly after dancer Prakashji migrated from Allahabad to Lucknow. His sons, Durgaprasad and Thakur Prasad were employed as dancers in the court of Wajid Ali Shah. Durga Prasad's son, Binda Din Maharaj (1836-1917) contributed immensely to the evolution of Kathak and was responsible for the sensual amalgamation of Kathak with thumri. Binda Din Maharaj, who popularised the Lucknow gharana of music, studied thumri from Sadiq Ali Khan. He first created what are called arth-bhav thumris, which are designed to be rendered through dance. In the early Lucknow tradition, a dancer would sing a line of the song and then interpret it while seated through gestures and facial expressions. This tradition of seated abhinaya was highly popular initially, but as thumri achieved sophistication, thumri exponents chose to specialise in either singing thumri or performing Kathak accompanied by a vocalist. Renowned thumri exponents like Gauhar Jaan, Siddeshwari Devi and Rasoola Bai rendered seated abhinaya occasionally. Shambhu Maharaj, son of Binda Din Maharaj and the guru of his nephew Birju Maharaj, remained the last great exponent of this style.

Gharanas While Kathak and thumri prospered in Lucknow, the Benares gharana lent it a different flavour. Due to its proximity to traditional folk music traditions, the thumri from the Benares gharana remains seeped in it and has less embellishments of classical tools. Though Lucknow experimented with serious ragas like Malhar, Malkauns, and Darbari in their bandish thumris, they are not found in the bol banao thumris of Benares. Kirana gharana vocalist Abdul Karim Khan(1872-1937) though a Khyaliya evolved a new approach to thumri singing. His style displayed a warm devotionalism. It was later picked up by disciples like Sawai Gandharva (d 1952), Suresh Babu Mane (d 1953), and Roshan Ara Begum. The style was then adopted by their disciples like Hirabai Badodekar (b 1905), Saraswati bai Rane, Bhimsen Joshi (b 1922), and Manik Verma. Thumri was sung by other gharanas like Faiyyaz Khan (1886-1950), Pyar Khan, Vilayat Hussain Khan, Latif Khan, and Mohammed Khan of Agra gharana, Mushtar Hussain Khan of Rampur gharana, Rehmat Khan of Gwalior, Kesar Bai Kerkar of Jaipur Atrauli gharana. Renowned ghazal singer Begum Akhtar, who learnt from gurus of Kirana and Patiala gharanas, was instrumental in presenting a style of thumri which was a mix of Purab and Punjab Ang of thumri. Bade Ghulam Ali Khan (1902-1968) contributed in a big way in popularising the Punjab style of thumri, though he always maintained that there was only one 'Purab Ang' to thumri. Son of Ali Baksh Khan, Bade Ghulam Ali belonged to a mirasi family whose traditional occupation was to teach courtesans and accompany them on the sarangi. He was instrumental in further bringing together thumri and khyal forms. Gradually, the up-tempo thumri adopted the taan techniques of khyal and tappa. Though this enriched its style, it also led to bandish thumri being absorbed into Chhota Khyal. The emphasis on Bandish thumri went out of vogue as singers either mastered the larger raga repertoire and technical demands of Khyal, or else concentrated only on the emerging Bol banao thumri of today. A gradual deceleration of tempo, a corresponding increase in emphasis on leisurely Bol Banao thumri and the replacement of classical teen taal with folk-driven metres like Sitarkhani or Deepchhandi took place. Thus Bol bano thumri resembles the strictly classical Bada Khyal due to its slow tempo. As the courtesan's salons and the aristocratic set up gave way to the modern concert halls, it changed not only the patrons of thumri but its basic goals and techniques. The seductive functions of thumri were altered and it became a more pure, abstract art form whose techniques and goals were purely aesthetic.

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Posted in: Music History

Romantic Era (1850 - 1920 C.E.)

Romantic Era (1850 - 1920 C.E.)

The Romantic era was a period of great change and emancipation. While the Classical era had strict laws of balance and restraint, the Romantic era moved away from that by allowing artistic freedom, experimentation, and creativity. The music of this time period was very expressive, and melody became the dominant feature. Composers even used this expressive means to display nationalism. This became a driving force in the late Romantic period, as composers used elements of folk music to express their cultural identity. As in any time of change, new musical techniques came about to fit in with the current trends. Composers began to experiment with length of compositions, new harmonies, and tonal relationships. Additionally, there was the increased use of dissonance and extended use of chromaticism. Another important feature of Romantic music was the use of color. While new instruments were constantly being added to the orchestra, composers also tried to get new or different sounds out of the instruments already in use. One of the new forms was the symphonic poem, which was an orchestral work that portrayed a story or had some kind of literary or artistic background to it. Another was the art song, which was a vocal musical work with tremendous emphasis placed on the text or the symbolical meanings of words within the text. Likewise, opera became increasingly popular, as it continued to musically tell a story and to express the issues of the day. Some of the themes that composers wrote about were the escape from political oppression, the fates of national or religious groups, and the events which were taking place in far off settings or exotic climates. This allowed an element of fantasy to be used by composers. During the Romantic period, the virtuoso began to be focused. Exceptionally gifted performers - pianists, violinists, and singers -- became enormously popular. Liszt, the great Hungarian pianist/composer, reportedly played with such passion and intensity that women in the audience would faint. Most composers were also virtuoso performers; it was inevitable that the music they wrote would be extremely challenging to play.

THE ROMANTIC ERA VOCAL SECTION

The Romantic Era brought further changes in the world of vocal music. Oratorios and choral music were semi-important vocal forms of the time, while the art song was by far the most important.

Art Song The song became its own special category of vocal music - separate from folk song, operatic aria, and popular song. It was very lyrical. Composers made great strides during this time period to closely associate the text or words of a piece with its musical counterpart.

Melody The art song was poetic in nature, and its tones were more lyrical than the dramatic tones of an opera. An art song would turn written poetry into something tangible that could be emotionalized through its music. Its goal was to turn specific words or phrases into a musical scene. Accompaniment The piano helped to add more emotion into the Romantic art song. The accompaniment enhanced the mood and meaning of the text by harmonic, rhythmic, and melodic material independent of the voice part. It also provided harmonic and melodic support to the voice. It also served to punctuate the poetic form by interludes between stanzas and lines of the poem.

Form Poetic structure is responsible for the musical form of a song. Two basic forms are through-composed a href="glossary.htm#through-composed">through-composedform and strophic form. Through-composed form is different for each stanza and the music closely follows changing ideas and moods in the poem. In strophic form, each stanza of the poem is set to the same music, whereas modified strophic form involves consecutive stanzas playing modified versions of the same music. There are other musical forms that are partly strophic, where some stanzas have the same music, while others have different music.

Song Cycle The song cycle is a group of poems by one poet set to music by a composer. The song cycle has a central idea or mood.

ORATORIO The oratorio was not the main focus of the romantic era. Composers concentrated more on opera and solo song. However, some composers wrote oratorios. Felix Mendelssohn was a notable composer of oratorio. His famous oratorios are St. Paul and Elijah.

OTHER RELIGIOUS CHORAL MUSIC Church music had reached the height of its popularity in the past and was not a main form of music in the Romantic era. The differentiation between an oratorio and other religious music lay within the text, instead of within formal and stylistic factors. Liturgical texts and psalms were set to music more often as festival works for concert performance than as functional church music. Romantic church music was like an oratorio as it employed large choruses, an orchestra, and solo voices. Differing from the oratorio, church music of the time did not have a narrator or make use of a recitative.

SECULAR CHORAL MUSIC Secular choral music partly gained its popularity in the Romantic Era due to an increase in nationalism and an increasing interest in folk song. Choral pieces of the time ranged from unaccompanied part songs to cantata like works with solo voices and orchestras. Choral elements were also used in a number of symphonic works by the great composers of the era.

THE ROMANTIC ERA INSTRUMENTAL

Beethoven was responsible for bridging the gap between the Classical and the Romantic eras. In his music, he tried to achieve a balance between the more structured, clear and strict Classical form and the newer exotic, innovative, and passionate of the Romantic style of music making. Other composers of this era followed suit, trying to maintain the balance that Beethoven’s music displayed. Music with a plot or which depicted a scene became important in this era as a way for composers to further display their artistic skill. Opera was not the only medium for expressing this; instrumental music was beginning to do so as well. Composers developed the tone poem, which was an orchestral work that conveyed a story without words. The main instrumental musical traits of the Romantic Era were virtuosity, individualism, and nationalism nationalism. As chamber music became less and less popular, the orchestra and the piano emerged as the new popular trends of the musical world. As keyboard and symphonic instruments became commonplace, short piano miniatures and symphonic works became the main stapleor the era.

KEYBOARD MUSIC The Piano Organ and harpsichord music, which were popular in past eras, began to diminish in importance. Piano music quickly stepped in to fill the void. The piano was an extremely versatile instrument, drawing both performers and composers to it at an increasingly rapid pace. The piano provided a wide dynamic range, the ability to distinguish between loud and soft, and a large capacity for sonority, which its predecessors did not have. This versatility enabled the performer to express artistic abilities that ranged from a quiet, delicate newborn kitten to that of a proud confident lion king. No other instrument to date matched the ability and endless possibilities that the piano suddenly gave musicians. The damper pedal allowed musicians to try new and exciting harmonic effects, and along with new keyboard mechanics, allowed them to fine tune their compositions in any number of ways.

KEYBOARD FORMS There were various musical forms that were composed for the piano. Some of the popular compositions were etudes, character pieces, variations virtuoso piece that states a theme and then modifies it through changes of rhythm, meter, and structure. Stylized Dances Stylized dances were popular dance forms such as the waltz, mazurka, polka, and the gallop.

SYMPHONIC MUSIC With the coming of the Romantic era, the orchestra grew in both importance, and size. More instruments were added, and gave this orchestra a wider range of sounds and emotions to put forth to the musical world.

Instrumentation Woodwinds The woodwind section grew to include two or more bassoons, oboes, flutes, and clarinets. Additional color instruments such as the contrabassoon, the bass clarinet, the piccolo, and the English horn were added. Brass The brass section began to utilize instruments with valves, which gave this section a wider range and versatility. This section included trumpets, horns, trombones, and tubas. Percussion In addition to the use of timpani, there was now the use of percussion instruments such as bass and side drums, xylophones, celestas, gongs, cymbals, castanets, harps, bells, triangles, and chimes. Strings While no additional string instruments were invented during this era, the number of string instruments used in an orchestra increased in size to balance out the addition of the larger brass and woodwind sections.

Orchestration New musical ideas were expressed through the use of additional solo parts into an orchestral work. A woodwind instrument or horn was favored for a solo part. Additionally, the string section experimented with, created, and used mutues, tremolo, harmonics, pizzicato, and double stops.

Forms Symphony Symphonies were composed by a number of Romantic composers. These symphonies were very different from the ones written during the Classical era. These differences included: 1. Freer form of the internal structure of the movement 2. Variation on the number of movements 3. The symphony evolved from a formal design to a creative means of expression 4. The inner movements had more contrasting keys within them 5. Solo voices and choral sounds were added to the symphony. Concerto A concerto was an extravagant showpiece for a virtuoso soloist and orchestra. The violin and piano were the instruments of choice. This form had three movements, which was similar to that of the concerto of the Classical era. Symphonic Poem (Tone Poem) This form was introduced in the mid 1800s by the composer Franz Liszt. It was a one movement, programmatic work based on a literary work or legend and usually had a descriptive title. Examples included Mussorgsky’s Night on Bald Mountain, Debussy’s Prelude to the Afternoon of a Fawn, Smetana’s The Moldau. Concert Overture This form was a single movement work and was usually found in sonata-allegro form. It was somewhat programmatic and usually had a descriptive title. It was not an orchestral introduction to an opera. A few examples were Tchaikovsky’s 1812 Overture, Mendelssohn’s Fingal’s Cave Overture, and Brahms Academic Festival Overture. Symphonic Variations Very few orchestral works were written in variation form. A few examples of this form are Brahm’s Variations on the Theme of Haydn, Franck’s Symphonic Variations for piano solo and orchestra, and Elgar’s Enigma Variations. Symphonic Suite These are programmatic works in several movements which do not follow the symphonic form. Examples of this were Tchaikovsky’s Nutcracker Suite, Rimsky-Korsikov’s Scheherazade, and Grieg’s Peer Gynt Suite. Dances Orchestral music written in dance forms in pieces composed by Johann Strauss Waltzes, for example.

CHAMBER MUSIC During the Romantic era, chamber music became increasingly obsolete. Chamber music did not possess the size, color, and sound of the symphony and could not match the piano’s warmth or versatility in range and expression. As a result, almost no new chamber music was written by composers, and virtually no program music was written for chamber ensembles. For the composers who still felt comfortable writing chamber music, the string quartet quartet was their choice. The composers of chamber music tried the freedom of expression that came with the Romantic era by writing new music for the piano - in trios, quartets, and quintets. The rarest form of chamber music became the solo sonatas for the violin and other instruments. Chamber music was not as important as it once had been and would never reach the height it once had.

The Romantic Era Composers

Brahms, Johannes (1833-1897) Johannes Brahms was born in 1833 of German heritage. He began his musical career by playing the piano. He met the important musicians Clara Schumann and her husband Robert Schumann when he was on a tour of Europe. Robert Schumann and Beethoven were strong influences on Johannes Brahms. His first published work, a piano sonata in C major, combined Schumann's tender lyricism with Beethoven's overwhelming energy. So inspired was he by Beethoven's symphonies that it took Brahms more than 10 years to write his first. It was instantly hailed as "Beethoven's Tenth." Stylistically, as more time passed, Brahms music became more refined and distinctly stylized from other composers. He often achieved a balance between the Romantic exaggeration and experimentation of the era with the structural clarity of the Classical era. He was a composer of numerous waltzes: Another famous Brahms composition is Intermezzo Op. 117, and. The most dramatic of Brahms' works was the Cantata Rinaldo. After this, he never attempted to compose another opera. His later works are characterized by their warmth and color.

Chopin, Frederic (1810-1901) Fredric Chopin was born in Poland in the year 1810. He began playing the piano at age four, and by age eight, was considered to be a child prodigy. He then toured Warsaw and was greeted by noble gentlemen and women, much like the childhood Mozart had experienced. He started composing music at age twelve. One of his first well-known compositions was the Rondo in C Minor, which was written when he was fifteen. He composed numerous etudes. One of these etudes, called the Black Key Etude, was written in the key of Gb and used only sharps and flats. After he toured more of Europe, young Chopin fell in love with Vienna. After he moved to Vienna, his musical career seemed bleak, as his first public concert did not go well. He became depressed due to the fact that Warsaw had been attacked and occupied by Russia. However, this inspired the composer to write one of his most famous works, the Revolutionary Etude, Opus 10, No. 12. Since Vienna did not suit him, he moved to Paris, France. When in Paris, his music grew more appreciated and was praised by the other well-known composers of the era. After his childhood sweetheart, Maria Wodzinska, refused his hand in marriage, he became depressed. Again, Chopin rose above his tribulation and wrote the famous waltz, Les Adieux, about lovers who part. His last concert was held in the Salle Pleyel in Paris in February of 1848. Although he was sick, he finished the concert. Chopin died a year and a half later. Chopin was the master of the piano of his generation. In his lifetime, he composed over 200 piano pieces. He turned the piano into a more emotional tool then was ever thought possible.

Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Felix (1809-1847) Felix Bartholdy Mendelssohn was a famous German composer. Born in 1809, Mendelssohn lived a happy life from the start. Like other virtuoso composers, he was a child genius when it came to music. At age nine he gave his first piano concert, composed productively from the age of ten, and was ready to conduct the Sunday morning musicales that were the joy of his youth, by age thirteen. At age seventeen, he composed one of his well known works, The Midsummer Night's Dream. One part of this work was the "Nocturne." Inspired by the music of J.S. Bach, Mendelssohn arranged for a performance of Bach's Passion According to St. Matthew, which had not been performed in the eighty years since Bach's death. Along with his friend Devrient, Mendelssohn raised money, engaged the soloists, sold tickets, trained the chorus, and played the organ for what were three sold out shows. Mendelssohn continually promoted J.S. Bach throughout his lifetime and is party responsible for the formation of the Bach Society. Mendehlssohn went on to complete the Scotch and Italian Symphonies, and a new piano concerto called the Reformation Symphony. One of his most famous works is Elijah, an oratorio that he composed and conducted. Mendelssohn also composed two other well known pieces, Fingals Cave Overture and the Wedding March. Later in life he became the director of the first German Conservatory of Music in Leipzig, where he also taught. Mendelhssohn's music is marked by a delicacy, sparkle, seamless flow, and clarity.

Puccini, Giacomo (1858-1924) Giacomo Puccini was a master of the Romantic Italian opera. He studied Opera at the Conservatory of Milan. He was able to go there due to a grant given to him by the Queen of Italy. He is well known for his opera La Boheme, which depicts the Bohemian lifestyle. He won 1000 Italian lire in a contest for his composition Capriccio Sinfonico. His other well-known operas are Tosca, Madame Butterfly, La Rondine, and Il Triptyh.

Schubert, Franz (1797-1828) Franz Schubert was a very musically talented child. Of Austrian descent, he was taught to play the violin by his father and the piano by his brother. The choirmaster at his church trained his voice. At age eleven, he was sent to a private music school in Vienna. There he sang soprano in the choir and played second violin in the school orchestra. He grew to appreciate the music of Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven. When his voice changed, he left school and became a teacher in his father's school. After doing this for three years and feeling unfulfilled, he quit and focused on composing full time. Always living on the brink of starvation, yet always composing, Franz Schubert would spend the rest of his life in Vienna. Schubert was eighteen when he wrote the masterpiece song Der Erlkonig. It wasn't accepted right away, as the public was critical of the dissonance in the accompaniment and its strange sound. However, today it is considered one of the greatest songs ever composed. Some other very well known works of Franz Schubert are Die Forelle, and Ave Maria. He composed over six hundred songs; in 1815 alone, he wrote one hundred and forty-four songs. He has been quoted as saying "I complete one song only to begin another." His last work was his Unfinished Symphony which is comprised of only the first and second movements. Schubert died at the young age of thirty-one. On his tombstone it reads, "Music hath here entombed a rich treasure but a still fairer hope."

Tchaikovsky, Peter Ilyich (1840-1893) Russian born, Tchaikovsky is regarded today as one of the greatest and most popular symphonists, second only to Beethoven. As a person, he was extremely fragile, sensitive, and charming but breakable. His first symphony was not well received which made him extremely upset, as he had labored so hard over the completion of this work. A similar thing happened to another work of his, the B Flat Minor Piano Concerto. His teacher of the time, Nikolai Rubinstein, criticized the piece. This outraged Tchaikovsky, and he grew so angry that he took back the dedication to his teacher on the piece, and moved out of Rubenstein's house. Some of Tchaikovsky's most famous works are The Romeo and Juliet Overture, the opera Eugen Onegin, and the Violin Concerto. Tchaikovsky also composed the score to the well-known ballet, The Nutcracker. This piece is a multi-movement work and is typically performed around Christmas time. "Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairies," "Trepak," "Arabian Dance," "Chinese Dance," "Dance of the Reed Flutes," "Waltz of the Flowers" are parts of this work. He is regarded today as one of the most expressive Romantic composers to come from Russia.

Verdi, Guiseppi (1813-1901) The Italian composer Giuseppe Verdi had a life full of trials and tribulations. At age twenty-eight, he was a happy man as he had just written his first opera, Oberto, and was living in Milan with his wife and his two small children. Unfortunately this happiness was soon interrupted, as his two children and his wife died within months of each other. Due to his extreme loss, he became depressed and did not work for many months. His first work after this tragedy, a comic opera entitled King for a Day, was not received well by the public. Giuseppe Verdi vowed never to write again. Eventually, Verdi came into contact with a play that inspired him to write a musical score. This became one of his masterpiece operas Nabuco. The public instantly proclaimed it a success, and they gave it thunderous applause the first time it was performed. Verdi wrote additional operas entitled: Attila, Macbeth, I Lombardi, and Ernani. Other famous operas which he composed were Rigoletto, La Traviata, Don Carlos, La Forza del Destino, I Vespri Siciliani, Il Trovatore, Simone Boccanegra, and Un Ballo in Maschera. Another famous opera of Verdi's was Aida. This opera was written for the opening of the Suez Canal and was performed in Cairo in 1871 for the first time. It was received with tremendous applause, and is one of the most emotional, lyrical, expressive, and skillful operas ever written. The last opera he wrote was Falstaff, a comedic opera that showed wit an charm (a surprising feat considering he wrote it when he was eighty years old). He is one of the greatest masters of opera.

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Posted in: Music History

Renaissance Era (1400 - 1600 C.E.)

Renaissance Era (1400 - 1600 C.E.)

The Renaissance era encompasses Western music history from 1400 to the begining of the 1600’s. This period in time marked the rebirth of humanism, and the revival of cultural achievements for their own sake in all forms of art, including music. The word "Renaissance" in itself is defined as a "rebirth"or a "reconstruction". During this time, artists and musicians produced works that displayed more artistic freedom and individualism. This creativity allowed artists to abandon the stricter ways of the Medieval Era. Their art forms rediscovered the ancient Greek ideals. The great masters of the Renaissance were revered in their own lifetimes (rather than after their deaths), which was different from most of their Medieval predecessors. With the new printing techniques, music and musical ideas were able to be preserved and distributed to the people. The distinctive musical sounds of the Renaissance era were comprised of a smooth, imitative, polyphonic style, as seen in the music of Byrd, Palestrina, and Lassus. While sacred music remained of great importance, secular music was starting to become increasingly common. Therefore, the polyphonic style was not only used in sacred music, but also in secular madrigals. The repertoire of instrumental music also began to grow considerably. New instruments were invented, including two keyboard instruments called the clavichord and virginal. In addition, many existing instruments were enhanced. The lute became the favored instrument of the time period, and it was established as the standard instrument for family music making during the 16th century. Masses and motets were the primary forms for sacred vocal polyphony. These were accompanied by the lute or a small instrumental ensemble or consort. Secular vocal forms included motets, madrigals and songs, while instrumental pieces were usually short polyphonic works or music for dancing. Renaissance polyphony was harmonious when compared with the Medieval style. Imitation was a method that composers used to make elaborate music more coherent and to give the listener a sense of arrangement. Imitation, where one melodic line shares, or "imitates," the same musical theme as a previous melodic line became an important polyphonic technique. Imitative polyphony can be easily heard in the music of Byrd, Gibbons, and Gabrieli. Additionally, the masses and motets of composers such as Josquin also displayed the imitative polyphonic style. Imitative polyphony was so important that it continued into the Baroque period, especially in sacred music for the church.

VOCAL 15TH CENTURY

English and Burgundian Music FORM During the beginning of the Renaissance period, musical form followed the same basic principles that were used the Medieval era. However, techniques evolved and new styles emerged. The three main forms used up to the sixteenth century were mass, motet, and chanson. They were similar in that they all were polyphonic in texture, had four to six parts, and were all composed for voice. Additionally, the carol was also a popular Renaissance form. Mass The mass was a standard liturgical form. It was polyphonic in style, with plainsong used for the tenor parts. Sometimes secular tunes would be used for cantus firmus. The mass had a regal mood to it and was of considerable length. It was divided into five sections, or movements, and used sacred Latin text. Motet A motet was a sacred choral composition based on a single Latin text and sung in all voice parts. The top voice was greatly emphasized. The motet short in length, and written in one continuous movement. It was also written on a variety of different subjects, usually derived from the Bible. Chanson The most popular and common secular music during the early Renaissance was the polyphonic chanson. It was reminiscent of the solo song, which used the principal melody in the top voice. These secular texts were written in French. The chanson had the same polyphonic texture of the mass but was more rhythmic.

Carol During the Renaissance era, the carol was a popular music form in England. It consisted of two parts and was sung to a religious poem of numerous stanzas with the same music and refrain. Franco-Flemish Music FORM The Franco-Flemish school of music was at its height during the 1400s. The Franco-Flemish composers were more interested in creating new techniques within the popular existing forms, as opposed to inventing new form types. Canon The cannon made its first appearance during the 1300s in the popular caccia of the Medieval era. It was abandoned at the turn of the next century and reappeared with new popularity during the latter part of the 1400s. The new canon employed some interesting techniques. 1. Mensuration canons-several voices carrying the same melody at different rates of speed. 2. Retrograde canons-the melody is sung backwards. 3. Augmentation canons-the time values of the notes increase in the imitating voice. 4. Double canons-four parts with two different melodies, each canonically imitated. (55) Mass A new form of mass emerged, called the cantus firmus mass. Here, each successive section of the ordinary had the same melody. These cantus firmi were usually written in the plainsong style, but sometimes secular music was used. Most of the time, these masses were based on cantus firmus.

Motet Ther was less use of cantus firums in motets than in masses. The Franco-Flemish motet made use of sections written in duet style, chordal style, fugal or imitative style, and free non-imitative counterpoint. Secular Music The chanson remained the dominant form of secular music, as it had been in the English style. The Franco-Flemish school made variations to it and made it less sectionalized. Lieder, a monophonic or polyphonic German secular work, gained popularity from the end of the 1400s to the end of the 1500s.

16TH CENTURY It is in the 1500s that the Renaissance reached its height. In terms of vocal polyphony, the Renaissance exhibited monumental growth. Throughout the sixteenth century, vocal polyphony reached its ultimate degree of perfection. Religious music was no longer led by the Roman Catholic Church, as Protestant music was also coming into common usage. While the vocal style still dominated the musical world, instrumental style began to increasingly appear. Secular music gained additional popularity, and schools besides the dominating Franco-Flemish one evolved all across the globe. ROMAN CATHOLIC MUSIC Form Throughout the 1500s, liturgical music grew in size, technique, and usage. Religious music was still dominated by masses and motets. Also, some non-liturgical forms began to develop and became somewhat popular during the second half of the Renaissance. Mass The main type of mass used during this time was the cantus firmus mass. It used plainsongs and secular melodies. Another common mass used during the sixteenth century was the parody mass, which had a complete secular chanson or motet altered to fit the text of the ordinary mass. After the early 1500s, completely canonic masses became less and less commonly used. Motet The motet did not change much in form or technique. In fugal motets, each successive phrase of text introduced a new concept or theme that was then imitated in other voices. Some motets divided the text from one line to the next so that more than one voice sang each new line of text. Non-liturgical forms The most popular non-liturgical form of the time period was the laude. This was a religious song of praise that was given a simple polyphonic setting in chordal style. Its text was in either Latin or Italian.

Schools Although the Franco-Flemish school still dominated the musical world, other schools became important, and developed music themselves. These schools were the Spanish school, the English school, the Venetian school, and the German school. REFORMATION MUSIC The Protestant Reformation led to many new developments in church music. Roman Catholic church music still dominated the era, but Protestantism added creative innovations to the music world. Germany Martin Luther, who sparked the Protestant Reformation, with his Ninety Five Theses, in 1517, believed strongly that music should be involved in church music. He felt that the congregation should participate in the service, especially in hymn singing. Chorale The chorale was one of the most important musical forms to come out of the Protestant Reformation. It was a hymn that was meant to be sung by the congregation. At first, chorales were monophonic and then progressed to four part harmony. Eventually, the chorales were used in more elaborate settings and were performed by choruses. Choral preludes, were contrapuntal arrangements of chorales which were played on an organ.

France In France, the Huguenot movement yielded an important literature of psalms set to music. Psalms Biblical psalms were translated into French verse and then set to melodies. These psalms were meant to be sung in unison by the congregation and also to be sung at home. Additionally, four part harmonization and more elaborate contrapuntal arrangements of psalms were developed in this era. England Church Music Psalm singing also became popular in England during the second half of the Renaissance. The English mass equivalent of the Catholic mass was called the "service." This mass was set to texts in a polyphonic manner. Besides services, two other forms of polyphony were present at this point in time. These were the Catholic anthem, which was a catholic motet with an English text, and the verse anthem, which alternated solo and choral sections and used organ or string accompaniment. In addition, Anglican chant was based upon Catholic plainsong. The English language now replaced Latin texts, and the melodies were given metrical organization.

SECULAR MUSIC Secular music of the time developed into wider geographic areas during the second half of the Renaissance. It continued to grow and diversify in form and style well into the 1600s. Secular music of the time had specific rules, according to Hugh M. Miller: 1. As in the 14th century, secular music again rivaled sacred music, largely because of the widespread renaissance spirit of secularization and also because poetry was flourishing. 2. The rise of national schools was even more pronounced in secular that in sacred music, although the influence of Netherlands composers was still strong. 3. Secular music flourished in all European courts under the patronage of nobility 4. It should be remembered that Renaissance secular music everywhere was intended as entertainment for amateur performers rather than as concert music. 5. It was composed and performed as chamber music for a few participants rather than for large choral ensembles. Italian Form During the late 1400s, popular vocal forms, referred to collectively as the vocal canzoni, appeared in Italy. These forms of music were generally in four parts, strongly metrical, predominantly chordal, and had dance like rhythms to them. These forms came right before the 16th century madrigal. The madrigal developed from the 1500s to the 1600s, and had more expressiveness to it, was more contrapuntally elaborate, and was more polished overall. French Form The most popular secular form in France were the polyphonic chanson and the solo chanson with contrapuntal accompaniment. While some chansons were in chordal style, others had more elegant counterpoint with imitation. The chanson measures, a type of chanson from the late 1500s, made use of quantitative rhythms, which stressed syllables were given twice the note values of unstressed syllables, resulting in frequently shifting meters. English Form English madrigals were popular during the sixteenth century. An English madrigal used five voices. It was written in a light and leisurely manner. A form of the madrigal called ballett was also popular. It used refrains in lively contrapuntal style alternating with chordal style for the stanzas. German Form A popular type of secular music in Germany during this time was the polyphonic lied. This was written in four voices with imitative counterpoint. The basis for this form was often popular songs. Another popular German form during the Renaissance was quodlibet. This form had various popular tunes and their texts humorously combined in a contrapuntal manner. Spanish Form The main Spanish secular form during the Renaissance was the villancico. The villancico was a four part work, written mostly in chordal style, with a regular metric construction. This was based on a three stanza poem and was musically structured according to the formula A B B A. This form of music was performed as solo songs with instruments playing the lower parts.

The Renaissance Era Instrumental

Even though the instrumental music of the Renaissance period did not equal the vocal music, in terms of quality and quantity, it still played an integral part of the era. Instrumental music gained in popularity and developeda musical form that was distinct from vocal music.

Even though the instrumental music of the Renaissance period did not equal the vocal music, in terms of quality and quantity, it still played an integral part of the era. Instrumental music gained in popularity and developeda musical form that was distinct from vocal music. During the Renaissance era, instrumental music was written according to specific rules. 1. Improvisation was very important in performance and for melodic ornamentation. 2. Transcriptions of vocal music for instrumental performance were numerous. 3. Instruments were freely employed in the performance of vocal music. 4. Some instrumental forms were borrowed from vocal forms, while others were instrumentally invented. Instrumental music also had specific characteristics during the Renaissance Era. The instrumental style of the Renaissance time period was also distinct. 1. Melodic range was wider than vocal limitations. 2. There was extensive ornamentation including coloration, embellishment, and figuration. 3. There was a much freer treatment of dissonance. 4. In lute and keyboard music contrapuntal parts were freely added or dropped without indicating rests. 5. There were exceedingly long and rapid scale passages. 6. There were numerous wide skips. During this era, the instruments on which musicians played from day to day also improved. The instruments most commonly used were of keyboards, strings, and winds.

STRING INSTRUMENTS Bowed Strings Ancestors of the 17th century violin family, Renaissance viols, were fretted instruments with six strings tuned in fourths, with a third in the middle (A d g b e’ a’). They were used in various ensembles called consorts (consisting entirely of viols) or in mixed consorts, which had recorders and other instruments in it. Plucked Strings The most popular solo instrument of the Renaissance was the lute. It had an angled neck and pear shaped body. Lutes were fretted instruments. It had six strings tuned, as did viols, in fourths with a third in the middle (G c f a d’ g’). Lute music was often written in tablature, a special kind of musical notation that indicates the fret and string for a given note. Being extremely versatile, the lute was used for solo, accompaniment and for ensemble music purposes.

WIND INSTRUMENTS The most important wind instrument of the Renaissance era was the recorder. The recorder was a hollow, end-blown wooden flute. The recorder was also a very versatile instrument and it was used in may different types of ensemble music. It ranged in size from treble to bass. Other notable wind instruments were the shawm and the cromorn (double reed woodwinds), coronets (soft toned instruments made out of wood or ivy), and early trumpets and trombones (restricted to the natural tone of the harmonic series). These instruments were first emerging and were confined to fanfares or to outdoor music festivals.

KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS Organs and keyboards were the primary keyboard instruments used during the Renaissance era. They were commonly found in churches. In their earliest form, pedalboards were not built into such organs (except in Germany). Regals, or positive organs, were in wide use since the Medieval period, while the portative organ died out during the latter 1600s. Additionally, there were two other types of keyboard instruments now present in the musical world. They were the clavichord and the harpsichord. Keyboard instruments were mainly used for solo purposes during the Renaissance, and rarely accompanied vocal polyphony. It was an even rarer occurrence that a vocal or ensemble piece to be accompanied by a clavichord or harpsichord.

ENSEMBLES The term Renaissance ensemble is meant to be used in a simplistic, unevolved form. Rarely did an ensemble match what we would today call an orchestra. Instead, ensembles were basically small chamber groups. Seldom was specific instrumentation for ensembles declared in a score. FORMS OF MUSIC Renaissance composers did not give much thought to whether their pieces would be vocal or instrumental. Most pieces of the time were written “per cantar e sonar”, which means “for singing and playing”. Composers wrote their works so that either the voice or instruments could be used to convey the message of their work. There was still a distinction between sacred and secular music during the 1700s.

Dance Music In its begining stages, dance music was written to accompany social gatherings. Later on, during the 1700s, a more structured and specifically styled dance form was developed. Dance music became popular and its form was filled with strong rhythm and repeating sections. The dances of the time were usually arranged in groups of 2 or 3 movements. In the typical dance pair, both sections had the same tune; the first dance was in slow tempo while the following one was faster with a change of meter. The lute, which was popular, helped to play dance music, while the harpsichord and small ensembles also contributed to this art form. Cantus Firmus Forms The cantus firmus musical form was basically for use in the Church, as it was liturgical music. Usually, this type of music was played by an organist between verses of a hymn sung by the congregation or choir. Stylistically, a cantus firmus piece was based on simplistic plainsong or secular song, which was meant to be played by a harpsichord, organ, or an ensemble of viols.

Improvisational Forms The prelude was the main improvosational form during the Renaissance. Usually composed for keyboard or lute instruments, it was an instrumental type which made use of a collection of materials in order to give the listener a feeling of improvisation. Variation Forms Variations were written in many different ways. Theme and variation form was based on a popular tune which itself was modified with each restatement. Another variation was called ground, which used short themes of four to eight measures in the bass and had a changing counterpoint played above it. A cantus firmus variation used a single melody which was repeated a number of times. Each time the melody was repeated it was accompanied by a different counterpoint and in a different voice. English hexachord variations used as a theme the first 6 notes of a scale. This was most common in virginal music.

The Renaissance Era Composers

Byrd, William (1543-1623) William Byrd was born in the county of Eincolnshire, England (the same place where Robin Hood lived). William Byrd was a composer of music for both the Protestant and Catholic churches. For the Protestant church, he composed Great Service and Short Service. For the Catholic church, he composed masses, hymns, and madrigals. During his childhood, he was probably one of the Children of the Chapel Royal in London, since it is known that Byrd was raised listening to music composed by Thomas Tallis. Tallis was the organist and choir director of that Chapel. At age twenty, he became Organist of the Lincoln Cathedral in his home town and later became a Gentleman at the Chapel Royal. He became the organist at the Chapel and worked along with his mentor Thomas Tallis.

Byrd is famous for writing extraordinary masses, motets, vocal and solo songs, and for chamber music composed for strings without voice. He is well known for his madrigals as well. The Sweet and Merry Month of May is very typical of the madrigals that Byrd wrote. He was described as a man with natural gravity and piety. He was versatile in instrumental form too, as he also wrote chamber music. During his life, he was considered the foremost composer of keyboard music in all of Europe. Byrd composed and excelled in writing sacred, secular, vocal and instrumental music and left a lasting impression on the musical world.

Desprez, Josquin (1440-1521) Throughout his life, he was by far the most sought after composer in all of Europe. He was born in the Duchy of Burgandy, now Beligium, and spent his life living in various Italian cites. He retired to Conde in Northeast France. He helped to spread polyphony in Northern Italy. In Josquin's extended works, a certain subtlety and serenity were always included, (a characteristic of the Franco-Flemish school). The repetoire of his music surviving today is rather large and is made up of motets, masses and secular songs, in both French and Italian. He was a master of four-voice and other large textures, as well as parodies, light songs, and French chansons. Because of his human quality, quantity, and technical mastery, Josquin is still extremely renowned and respected as a composer today.

Gabrielli, Giovanni (1554-1612) Born in Italy in 1554, Giovanni Gabrielli was a composer of sacred and secular vocal music. He also composed music for string, keyboard, and wind ensemble pieces. He is best known for his perfection of the cori spezzati musical form, in which choirs or performing groups are broken up into sections and dispersed in and around the performance space. Gabrielli was also famous for his chromatic motets written about damnation and hell. Additionally, he was a promoter of the music of Monteverdi.

Gibbons, Orlando (1583-1625) Orlando Gibbons lived during the historical high point of English music. Gibbons is renowned as being the greatest English composer of his generation. He was born in Oxford, played and taught music to royalty, and died at the age 42. Along with other composers of the time, Gibbons wrote new music and developed new techniques for consort music. He also is famous for his sacred choral music, English anthems, and verse anthems. Additionally, he wrote consort songs for vocal madrigals and solo songs with viol consort accompaniments. His madrigal The Silver Swan is well known. His music remains well loved today and his choral music is constantly played as part of the English Cathedral repetoire.

Ockeghem, Johannes (1410-1497) Ockeghem is known as one of the fathers of Renaissance music. He was born in 1410 and became one of the most respected composers of the fifteenth century. Very little of his musical repetoire survives today. He is known for his motets, masses, and secular chansons. Stylistically, Johannes Ockeghem was very distinct. In his vocal pieces, he placed an emphasis on expressive and complex bass lines. This new emphasis on lower textures allowed Renaissance composers to have a wide range of diversity in their music. Ockeghem has been described as a purely technical master. He is also considered to be a pioneer of western polyphony and one of the supreme masters of lyrical and contrapuntal invention.

Palestrina, Giovanni (1525-1594) Giovanni Pierluigi de Palestrina was an Italian composer who wrote over one hundred settings of the mass. He composed sacred music and was an important musical figure of the Renaissance. He is best known for his "seamless texture" of polyphony.

His prominent works are his First Book of Masses, the Mass of Marcellus, and his First Book of Motets. He composed masses, motets, and sacred works. Adoramus te Christe is an example of his sacred music. His music is marked by purity, clarity, terseness, simplicity, and the omission of secular elements. Because of all of his worthy compositions, he earned the title "Prince of Music," which was engraved on the leaden plate that marks the tomb on his grave. He died in 1594, but his influence lasted for many eras past his death.

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Posted in: Music History

Indian Music

The Vedic Period Music, according to Hindu mythology, originated with the first sound ever to be heard in the universe, the Naadbrahma, or Om. This Naadbrahma pervades the entire universe and, being a manifestation of the divine power (or Brahma), is the purest sound to be heard. It is this purity that the musician attempts to achieve in his dedicated pursuit, or sadhana, of the music he is involved in. Where Indian cultural history is concerned, the farthest one can go back is, perhaps, the time of the Vedas, approximately 5000 to 4000 BC. These are arguably the earliest written documents to have emerged from the Indian subcontinent. The Vedic chants themselves, though, would date back even further subcontinent. The Vedic chants themselves, though, would date back even further because before writing, shruti, sound or speech in this case, and smriti, memory, were the only means of passing knowledge down the generations. The Vedic chants, set in three basic notes, formed a melody giving them a rhythm that probably made them easier to remember.Music, however, was obviously in existence and practice much before the Vedas were written. Research indicates that the Samveda had a rather complicated way of chanting that used more than just three notes as in the case of the other Vedas. Also, it has been found that a rather definite scale of svaras, notes, had been arrived at by scholars of the Vedic period. According to 'Evolution of Indian Classical Music' by Neerja Bhatnagar (Publication Scheme, Jaipur, First Edition 1997), "In the early Vedic period, the svaras were called Krushta, Prathama, Dvitiya, Tratiya, Chaturtha, Mandra and Atisyarya. Later, these were called Shadja, Rishabha, Gandhara, Madhyama, Panchama, Dhaivata and Nishada." Or, Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni as they are sung. Her book also makes mention of the fact that these notes, if played today, would start from the middle of the madhya sapthak, second octave, and go down to the mandra sapthak, lower octave. Also, the concept of shruti being intervals between the seven notes had been arrived at, as had the distinction between notes that are definitely musical and those that are not. As the centuries faded into one another and civilisations like that of the Indus valley rose and fell, the writings of the Vedas endured. It is difficult to say how many manuscripts actually survived and how many took the beating of time then. However, the people of that time followed the way of life as propounded in the four books and most cultures and societies of the time continued studies in the realms started by the Vedic sages.

The 1st to 13th Century The passing of the Vedic age in no way meant that studies by scholars and sages was stopped. Advancements, however slow, were definitely made in the spheres of study started in the Vedic age, music being of particular concern in this case. According to researchers, by 600 BC or so the grammatisation of music evolved quite a bit. The three sapthaks, octaves -- mandra sapthak, the lower octave, madhya sapthak, the middle octave, and taar sapthak, the higher octave -- had been established as the ranges within which musical composition could function. Concepts like taal, beat, and jati, ways in which notes can be used, were being recognised and established. It was around this time, between 200 BC and 200 AD, that Bharata's Natyashastra is said to have been written. One of the first authoritative texts on the performing arts, the Natyashastra was intended as the fifth Veda, laying down rules and structures that performers were to follow in theatre, dance and music. When writing about music, Bharata makes the distinction between Gandharva music, ritualistic singing, and Dhruva Gana, music for theatre. He also provides excellent indications, through his writing, the high level to which studies in music had reached. "Bharata's Natyashastra gives very significant information about Indian music, various concepts related to it, and musical instruments, and serves as an indispensable link between music during the Vedic period, music in the epics, Panini, Buddhist and Jain works, and the music during the time of Matanga and Sarangadeva." (Evolution of Indian Music, Neerja Bhatnagar, Publication Scheme, Jaipur, First Edition 1997) For the first seven centuries or so, the Natyashastra functioned as the main doctrine to be followed in terms of music. Till Matanga, a scholar who lived somewhere in the 7th to 9th Centuries, wrote the Brhaddesi. Later, in the 13th century, Sarangadeva wrote the Sangita Ratnakar which, till today, is regarded as the most comprehensive treatise on ancient Indian classical music. The Sangita Ratnakar elaborates a great deal on the significance that each of the seven notes has in evoking sentiment or feeling in the mind of the listener. It has been argued that the later concepts of the raga as we know it originated at about this time. In fact, some ragas were mentioned as well. "The Sangita Ratnakar marks a watershed in the evolution of Indian Classical Music, a standard from which any deviations or new developments in the field of music can be identified and examined." (Evolution of Indian Music, Neerja Bhatnagar, Publication Scheme, Jaipur, First Edition 1997)

The Persian Invasion By the time the Muslims established their rule in India, Indian music had already attained its classical form through the dedicated works of the Vedic saints and sages. Later, scholars like Bharata, Dattila, Matanga, Narad, and Sarangadeva contributed their own knowledge and wisdom in music to the scriptures and developed the field further. With the Persian invasions came a lot of destruction, not just of land and property, but of the very way of life in Northern India. While most of the Southern states (South of the Deccan Plateau) managed to resist the invasions, the kingdoms of the North suffered a great deal. The Hindu culture that had been in existence and had been evolving since the time of the Vedas had now to assimilate all the values and traditions of the Muslim rulers. The Persian kings brought with them their own entourages of artists, singers and scholars and thus their own evolved styles of music. The music of India, though, did not suffer and in fact managed to survive with most of its own identity fairly intact. The reasons for this were many. Not only had centuries of the guru- shishya parampara, teacher-student tradition, established a set way of learning and passing on information down the generations, the very qualities of Indian music helped it survive. These qualities would include the very highly scientific structure within which a musician could operate with total freedom, the aesthetic appeal of the music, the melodies and the unmistakable spiritual aspect of the music. Also, it has been pointed out that while a lot of Hindus did convert to Islam at that time, most of them grew up with Indian music and perhaps felt more comfortable with it than with Persian music. Apart from these social factors, research has uncovered that even during these turbulent times, Indian classical music was flourishing in various kingdoms all across the country like Rajputana, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Devagiri in the South. Gwalior was fast emerging the stronghold of Indian classical music and many later renowned musicians came from this state including the famous Tansen who sang in Akbar's court. It was around this time that the Bhakti movement started and various contributions by saint poets like Alvaras, Jayadeva, Vidyapati and Chandidas were made, further enriching the tradition of Indian music.

Developments During the 13th and 14th centuries With the Muslim rulers came the mehfil, gatherings of musicians, singers, dancers and poets at the homes of noblemen and royals. These gatherings were for the express purpose of patronising artistes and performers in their skills and giving them platforms to display their talents. In fact, for many performers these mehfils were a way of earning their living. For if they pleased the nobleman or royal, handsome rewards were to be received in the form of precious jewels or sovereigns, rewards that would see them through hard times and that would help build a legacy for their descendants. One such poet to emerge from the artistic ambience of the mehfil was Amir Khusrau during the reign of Sultan Jalal-ud-din-Khalji. Amir Khusrau was a prolific poet who, it is said, in his young days wrote one new ghazal every day. His poetry is famous even today and many still enjoy its timeless lyricism. In his later years he turned towards Sama, mystic music sung by Chishtia Sufis. Khyal, though not initiated during this time, found its origins in this period and the superstructure of the Khyal was formed in these years. These were also the years in which Dhrupad as a distinct style of singing emerged. However, the most popular forms of singing in the 13th and 14th centuries, were ghazals and qawwalis. The Reign of Akbar By the time Akbar's rule came about in the 16th century, the music of North India had evolved into an entity rather distinct to that of South India. The courts kept musical traditions alive and the darbar was a place for many a musician to nurture his talent. It was during Akbar's reign that Abul Fazl's two works, Akbar Nama and Ain-i-Akbari were written. In addition to describing the music of the day, the latter dealt a little with the classification of ragas as well. Scholars, however, do make note of the fact that while Abul Fazl was, no doubt, a great thinker and knew a lot about music, most of his texts were based on enquiry and the questions he asked of various musicians and people he met. During Akbar's time, a lot of work was done with respect to critically analysing and understanding the Sangita Ratnakar. Stories abound of Tansen testing the musical talents of other musicians in the court by asking highly technical questions of them, questions that could only be answered by someone who had deeply studied music. Simultaneously, in other kingdoms across the country, vast amounts of research and enquiry was being done in the field of music in an attempt to better understand the form. An interesting point to note here is that before Akbar's reign, gharanas have very rarely been referred to. It was only after Tansen died that his descendants were referred to as belonging to the Senia Gharana from the Gwalior school of music. However, some do feel that during the development of Dhrupad, the vanis, styles of singing Dhrupad, were akin to gharanas as we know them today. Akbar's court was said to be the liveliest in terms of patronage of the arts. A lot of this was also due to the fact that Akbar himself was avidly interested in the arts and did a lot to promote good artistes. With the passing of Akbar, it is said that a golden period in Indian classical music passed away.

After Akbar (16th to 18th centuries) Akbar was the most celebrated of Mughal rulers not only because of his patronage of the arts but also because he was a strong king. His descendants, though they favoured art, never found as exalted a place in history as Akbar did. However, as long as there were kings and courts, music flourished. Musicians from the various states were constantly improving their gayaki, styles, and were continuously innovating and studying deeper aspects of music. In the 17th and early 18th centuries, the Dhrupad was still the king of the courts. However, by the 18th century, the Khyal was becoming more and more popular with singers. By the 19th century, the Khyal had fairly embedded itself in the minds of musicians and the Thumri, too, was coming up, especially in the reign of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah (1847-56).

The Rise of the British (18th to 19th centuries) By this time, though, the British had fairly established their presence in the country. Bahadur Shah Zafar was the last Mughal emperor to rule North India. After the Revolution of 1857, the British deposed him, took control and did away with the independent princely states. All Rajas and Nawabs began owing allegiance to the British Empire. The taxes they formerly collected for themselves were now a part of the British exchequer and they, in turn, received a Privy Purse out of which they had to maintain their expenses. Smaller nawabs had a rough time and most had to give up their lavish lifestyles. The rise of the British Empire spelt death for court arts. With their wealth gone, the nawabs and noblemen no longer had rewards to lavish on performers. Most had to move to other occupations. Yet, a few gharanas managed to survive the ravages of this period to emerge strong after Independence.

The 20th Century By the time the 20th century dawned, the Indian populace was gradually awakening to the fact that it no longer wanted to be ruled by a foreign government. The early years of the century saw the beginning of efforts made by people in different parts of the country to get independent. From a macro perspective, it would seem that the field of classical Indian music reached a point of rest. With the patronage of the noblemen and royals gone, very few Indian classical artistes survived. Interest seemed to fade and classical music became the prerogative of the intellectuals. Then, newer forms of media started to emerge that brought with them sounds from all over the world. The airwaves were coming alive and a vast variety of western influences crept into Indian music. Popular music, which was mainly folk music till now, began to take on a different meaning altogether, especially with the advent of cinema. Also, as the nationalist movement gained momentum, music that the general populace all over the country could relate to was more in demand. Which is not to say that classical artistes were not -- musicians who were very deeply rooted in the classical tradition composed a lot of popular tunes. The gradually growing film industry began attracting professional musicians and the middle of the century saw many efforts made by the government to revive the classical arts that had suffered at the hands of the British. However, the trend set by the movies completely turned the face of Indian music around. Within the field of classical music, it was a different kind of development that started taking place in the 60s with Pandit Ravi Shankar taking classical music out of the country to audiences abroad. He was also the first to experiment with mixing western music with the Indian classical form to arrive at what is called fusion, or world music, a genre that is exceedingly popular today. However, popular music was still only film music. Pop music, disco music by independent artistes, did make something of an appearance in the late 70s and early 80s with singers like Nazia Hasan and Runa Laila. However, the trend didn't quite catch on and it was only a few years later that pop artistes Alisha Chinai and Sharon Prabhakar broke the ice. Now, in the 90s, there's one new pop star practically every month. For a long time, the popular perception of classical music was 'too cerebral' or 'too heavy'. However, recent years have seen a resurging interest in the field. An increase in the number of artistes indulging in fusion and a growing number of organisations dedicated to spreading the richness of the tradition has helped revive interest in classical music. Also, younger, media savvy artistes realise the potential of the 'Channel [V]-MTV' platform and are working more towards attracting the younger listener. The Indian classical music tradition, however, has by no means faded. There are still teachers and disciples all over the country who dedicate a major part of their lives to the pursuit of this art, the sadhana of shastriya sangeet.

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ghazal

The ghazal as a form of music originated in Iran around the 10th century AD. It came to India with the Persian invasion in the 13th Century and, ever since, has captured the hearts and minds of people who listen to this beautiful, most poetic of genres.

The basis of the ghazal lies in Persian poetry. The language medium changed to Urdu sometime during the 13th century after Urdu became the accepted language of culture in the courts. One of the first, most prolific composers of the ghazal was Amir Khusrau who, it is said, at the height of his career wrote as much as one new ghazal a day. The ghazals of Amir Khusrau are still as treasured by connoisseurs or Urdu shayari, poetry, today.

Ghazals evolved from the Persian qasida which came to Iran from Arabia. The qasida often stretched to 100 or more couplets. The ghazal, through innovation, arrived at a dozen or so couplets. These couplets are composed in music that does not restrict itself to the rigid structures of ragas. One of the ghazal's greatest virtues, extolled widely when it first gained popularity, was that it was the kind of music that could draw from a variety of sources to arrive at a melody that made for perfectly aesthetic listening. Another beautiful aspect of the traditional ghazal is the fact that each of the shers, couplets, that comprise a ghazal can be quoted and used as individual sets of ideas, thoughts or feelings.

There have been many poets who composed ghazals over the centuries. Some of the more famous of them include Wali Mohammed Wali, Khwaja Mir Dard, Asadullah Khan Ghalib (known as Mirza Ghalib), Faiz Ahmed Faiz and the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar.

The ghazal is still as widely popular today and composers like Gulzar and singers like Jagjit Singh rule the contemporary scene.

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Classical Music

Vocal MusicGharanas Among the more popular and prolific gharanas of vocal music are the following. Most have been in existence for at least five to six generations. Their descendants include some of the most famous classical musicians performing today. The Gwalior Gharana: Founded by Ustad Hassu Khan, Ustad Haddu Khan and Ustad Nathu Khan. A few famous Indian artistes from this gharana include Pandit Vishnu Digambar Paluskar, Omkarnath Thakur, and Smt Veena Sahasrabuddhe. The Patiala Gharana: The founders of this tradition were Ustad Fateh Ali Khan and Ustad Ali Baksh. Their descendants include Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, Munawar Ali Khan, Begum Parveen Sultana and Begum Akhtar among the more famous. The Kirana Gharana: Ustad Abdul Karim Khan founded this gharana. Some of the more famous exponents of this tradition include Sawai Gandharva, Smt Gangubai Hangal, Pandit Bhimsen Joshi and Prabha Atre. The Jaipur-Atrauli Gharana: The founder of this gharana was Ustad Alladiya Khan who's descendants include Kesarbai Kerkar, Mogubai Kurdikar, Kishori Amonkar, Mallikarjun Mansur, Arati Ankalikar and Shruti Sadolikar-Katkar, the last two being relatively young musicians. Other gharanas include The Agra Gharana (founded by Ustad Gagghe Khuda Bakhsh), The Rampur-Seheswan Gharana (founded by Ustad Inayat Khan), The Delhi Gharana (founded by sarangiya Ustad Mamman Khan), The Benaras Gharana (founded by sarangiya Pandit Gopal Mishra; his descendants Rajan Mishra and Sajan Mishra are carrying on this tradition today), The Indore Gharana (founded by Ustad Amir Khan), The Jaipur-Mewati Gharana, and The Talwandi Gharana, among others.

Ragas A raga is a rather metaphysical concept to define. At one level, it could be called an emotion, a state of being, a set of feelings and thoughts that the singer conveys to you through his voice and skill in scaling notes. At a more academic level, it is a musical composition that functions within a structure and follows certain rules with relation to the kind of notes used in it. Ragas belong to certain classes or categories called thaats. A thaat is defined as that set of seven notes from which a raga can be made. There are ten thaats in all: Bilaval, Kalyan, Khamaj, Kafi, Bhairav, Bhairavi, Asavari, Marva, Poorvi and Todi.

Historically there has always been some debate on thaats. Different scholars have given their own interpretations of thaats. The first scholar to present thaats was Lochan Pandit in the 14th century. However, it was in the 17th century that Pandit Vyankatmukhi first gave a comprehensive picture of the thaat as a concept in classical music. He studied the ragas and mathematically arrived at 72 thaats. However, Hindustani classical music accepted only 32 of these. It was Pandit Bhatkhande who finally arrived at the list of ten given above.Ragas must belong to one of the above thaats. However, this is not the only classification of a raga. Ragas are also classified on the basis of jati, or number of notes used in the raga. When the basic structure of a raga is made up of seven notes, it is said to be Sampoorna (complete). When the basic structure is of six notes, it belongs to the Shadav jati. When the basic structure is of five notes, it is of the Audav jati. There can be a maximum of seven notes in a raga and a minimum of five notes. A deeper study of ragas that will help you better acquaint yourself with Indian classical music follows.

Dhrupad Dhrupad, a style of classical music, emerged somewhere in the 13th century, after the Persian invasion. Set in a raag to taal, beats, a Dhrupad composition has text that is generally longer than Dadra or Thumri and was sung in praise of the lord. Interestingly, the compositions were written in Brajbhasha, or Deshi bhasha, as it was sometimes called. The Dhrupads of the 14th to 16th centuries became very popular especially during the reign of one of the Tomar rulers -- Raja Dungarendra Singh Tomar.

Dhrupad enjoyed prime status in the imaginations of singers for a long time. Sung in the courts of various kings, many different vanis, styles of singing Dhrupad, emerged. These styles were practiced and perfected to such an extent that avid listeners learnt to trace the vanis back to the singers from whom they originated. It has been argued by some researchers that these vanis were the first signs of gharanas, styles of singing or performing classical music, as we know them today. The Dhrupad vanis, however, merged into one another later on and it is now difficult to trace a vani back to its origin. The style enjoyed supremacy for nearly five centuries till the 18th century, when the Khyal started catching on. Now there are very few exponents of Dhrupad left. The Dagar family is the only set of musicians who still sing the traditional Dhrupad.

Khyal It is difficult to say when the Khyal first made its tentative appearance in classical music. While it has been acknowledged that the basis of the Khyal was set sometime in the 13th and 14th centuries, it was only in the 18th century during the reign of Emperor Muhammad Shah that it finally came into its own.

The Khyal, according to 'Evolution of Indian Classical Music' by Neerja Bhatnagar (Publication Scheme, Jaipur, First Edition 1997), is said to have emerged as a reaction against the puritanical rigidity of Dhrupad which retained its primacy as a classical genre till the second decade of the 18 century.The main contributors to the Khyal are said to be two composers, Adaranga and Sadaranga, whose names appear in the lyrics of many compositions. It has been argued that it was during this time that the Khyal finally began to overtake the Dhrupad in popularity and the level of domination to which it reached is still enjoyed by it even today.

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